References: This is a concatenation of references from several papers -- use search to find specfic references. Rayner N. A., D. E. Parker, E. B. Horton, C. K. Folland, L. V. Alexander, D. P. Rowell, E. C. Kent, A. Kaplan, Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century, J. Geophys. Res., 108 (D14), 4407, doi:10.1029/2002JD002670, 2003. Baldwin, M. P., 2001: Annular modes in global daily surface pressure. Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 4114-4118. Compagnucci, R. H., M. A. Salles, P. O. Canziani, 2001: The spatial and temporal behaviour of the lower stratospheric temperature over the Southern Hemisphere: the MSU view. Part I: data, methodology and temporal behaviour. Int. J. Climatol., 21, 419-437. Harrison, D. E., and N. K. Larkin, 1997: Darwin sea level pressure, 1876-1996: Evidence for climate change? Geo. Phys. Res. Lett., 24, 1779-1782. Hoerling, M. P., J. W. Hurrell and T. Xu, 2001: Tropical origins for recent North Atlantic climate change. Science, 292, 90-92. Hurrell, J. W., 1995: Decadal trends in the North Atlantic Oscillation regional temperatures and precipitation. Science, 269, 676-679. Kidson, J. W., 1988: Interannual variations in the Southern Hemisphere circulation. J. Climate, 1, 1177-1198. Kidson, J. W., 1999: Principal modes of Southern Hemisphere low frequency variability obtained from NCEP/NCAR reanalysis. J. Climate, 12, 2808-2830. Kistler, R., W. Collins, S. Saha, G. White,J. Woollen, E. Kalnay, M. Chelliah, W. Ebisuzaki, M. Kanamitsu, V. Kousky, H. van den Dool, R. Jenne, M. Fiorino, 2001: The NCEP-NCAR 50-year reanalysis: Monthly means cd-rom and documentation. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 247-268. Santer, B. D., T. M. L. Wigley, J. S. Boyle, D. J. Gaffen, J. J. Hnilo, D. Nychka, D. E. Parker, and K. E. Taylor, 2000: Statistical significance of trends and trend differences in layer-average atmospheric termperature time series. J. Geophys. Res., 105, D6, 7337-7356. Shindell, D. T., R. L. Miller, G. Schmidt, and L. Pandolfo, 1999: Simulation of recent northern winter climate trends by greenhouse-gas forcing. Nature, 399, 452-455. Spiegel, M. R., 1961: Theory and problems of statistics. Schaum's Outline Series. McGraw-Hill, 359 pp. Thompson, D. W. J., and J. M. Wallace, 1998: The Arcttic oscillation signature in the wintertime geopotential height and temperature fields. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1297-1300. Thompson, D. W. J., and J. M. Wallace, 2000: Annular modes in the extratropical circulation Part I: month-to-month variability. J. Climate, 13, 1000-1016. Thompson, D. W. J., and S. Solomon, 2002: Interpretation of recent Southern Hemisphere climate change. Science, 296, 895-899. Trenberth, K. E., 1976: Spatial and temporal variations of the Southern Oscillation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 639-653. Trenberth, K. E., 1984: Signal versus noise in the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 326-332. Trenberth, K. E., and T. J. Hoar, 1996: The 1990-1995 El Nino - Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 57-60. Trenberth, K. E., and T. J. Hoar, 1997: El Nino and climate change. Geophy. Res. Lett., 24, 3057-3060. Trenberth, K. E., and J. W. Hurrell, 1999a: Comments on "The interpretation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2721-2722. Trenberth, K. E., and J. W. Hurrell, 1996b: Reply to Rajagopalan, Lall, and Cane's comment about "The interpolation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2726-2728. Trenberth, K. E., and D. J. Shea, 1987: On the evolution of the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 3078-3096. Trenberth, K. E., and J. M. Caron, 2000: The Southern Oscillation revisited: Sea level pressures, surface temperatures and precipitation. J. Clim., 13, 4358-4365. Troup, A. J., 1965: The Southern Oscillation. Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 91, 490-506. Walker, G. T., 1924: Correlation in seasonal variations of weather. IX: A further study of world weather (World Weather II). Mem. Indian Meteor. Dept., 24, 275-332. Walker, G. T., and E. W. Bliss, 1932: World Weather V. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 4, 53-84. Woodruff, S. D., H. F. Diaz, J. D. Elms, and S. J. Worley, 1998: COADS Release 2 data and metadata enhancements for improvements of marine surface flux fields. Phys. Chem. Earth, 23, No. 5-6, 517-526. Wright, P. B., 1985: The Southern Oscillation: An ocean-atmosphere feedback system? Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 66, 398-412. Wunsch, C., 1999a: The interpolation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 245-256. Wunsch, C., 1999b: Reply to comments on "The interpolation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2723. Arkin, P. A., 1982: The relationship between interannual variability in the 200 mb tropical wind field and the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 1393-1404. Arkin, P. A., and B. N. Meisner, 1987: The relationship between large-scale convective rainfall and cold cloud over the western hemisphere during 1982-1984. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 51-74. Barnett, T. P., 1983: Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales. Part I: the equatorial zone. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 756-773. Barnett, T. P., 1984a: Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales. Part II: the tropical band. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2380-2387. Barnett, T. P., 1984b: Interaction of the monsoon and Pacific trade wind system at interannual time scales. Part III: a partial anatomy of the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 2388-2400. Barnett, T. P., 1985: Variations in near-global sea level pressure. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 478-501. Brankovic, C., T. N. Palmer, and L. Ferranti, 1994: Predictability of seasonal atmospheric variations. J. Climate, 7, 217-237. Chelliah, M., 1990: The global climate for June-August 1989: a season of near normal conditions in the tropical Pacific. J. Climate, 3, 138-161. Chelliah, M., and P. Arkin, 1992: Large-scale interannual variability of monthly outgoing longwave radiation anomalies over the global tropics. J. Climate, 5, 371-389. Deser, C., and J. M. Wallace, 1990: Large-scale atmospheric circulation features of warm and cold episodes in the tropical Pacific. J. Climate, 3, 1254-1281. Graham, N. E., J. Michaelson, and T. P. Barnett, 1987: An investigation of the El Niño - Southern Oscillation cycle with statistical models I. Predictor field characteristics. J. Geophys. Res., 92, 14251-14270. Graham, N. E., 1994: Decadal-scale climate variability in the 1970s and 1980s: observations and model results. Climate Dynamics, 10, 135-162. Harrison, D. E., 1987: Monthly mean island surface winds in the central tropical Pacific and El Niño Events. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 3133-3145. Heddinghaus, T. R., and A. F. Krueger, 1981: Annual and interannual variations in outgoing longwave radiation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 1208-1218. Horel, J. D., and J. M. Wallace, 1981: Planetary-scale atmospheric phenomena associated with the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 813-829. Janowiak, J. E., and P. A. Arkin, 1991: Rainfall variations in the tropics during 1986-1989, as estimated from observations of cloud-top temperature. J. Geophys., Res., 96, 3359-3373. Liebmann, B., and D. L. Hartmann, 1982: Interannual variations in outgoing IR associated with tropical circulation changes during 197478. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1153-1162. Meehl, G. A., 1987: The annual cycle and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 27-50. Nigam, S., and H. -S. Shen, 1993: Structure of oceanic and atmospheric low-frequency variability over the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans. Part I: COADS observations. J. Climate, 6, 657-676. Nitta, T., and S. Yamada, 1989: Recent warming of tropical sea surface temperature and its relationship to the Northern Hemisphere circulation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 67, 375-383. Parker, D. E., P. D. Jones, C. K. Folland, and A. Bevan, 1994: Interdecadal changes of surface temperature since the late nineteenth century. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 14373-14399. Pazan, S. E., and G. Meyers, 1982: Interannual fluctuations of the tropical Pacific wind field and the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 587-600. Rasmusson, E. M., and T. H. Carpenter, 1982: Variations in tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation / El Niño. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 354-384. Rasmusson, E. M., and J. M. Wallace, 1983: Meteorological aspects of the El Niño / Southern Oscillation. Science, 222, 1195-1202. Rasmusson, E. M., X. Wang, and C. F. Ropelewski, 1990: The biennial component of ENSO variability. J. Mar. Sys., 1, 79-96. Ropelewski, C. F., M. S. Halpert, and X. Wang, 1992: Observed tropospheric biennial variability and its relationship to the Southern Oscillation. J. Climate, 6, 594-614. Smith, T. M., R. W. Reynolds, R. E. Livezey, and D. C. Stokes, 1996: Reconstruction of historical sea surface temperatures using empirical orthogonal functions. J. Climate, 9, 1403-1420. Spencer, R. W., 1993: Global oceanic precipitation from the MSU during 19791991 and comparisons to other climatologies. J. Climate, 6, 1301-1326. Spencer, R. W., and J. R. Christy, 1990: Precise monitoring of global temperature trends from satellites. Science, 247 , 1558-1562. Spencer, R. W., and J. R. Christy, 1992: Precision and radiosonde validation of satellite gridpoint temperature anomalies. Part I: MSU channel 2. J. Climate, 5, 847-857. Spencer, R. W., and J. R. Christy, 1993: Precision lower stratospheric monitoring with the MSU: Technique, validation, and results 197991. J. Climate, 6, 1194-1204. Trenberth, K. E., 1990: Recent observed interdecadal climate changes in the Northern Hemisphere, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 71, 988-993. Trenberth, K. E., and D. Shea, 1987: On the evolution of the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 3078-3096. Trenberth, K. E., and T. J. Hoar, 1996: The 1990-1995 El Niño - Southern Oscillation event: longest on record. van Loon, H., 1984: The Southern Oscillation. Part III: associations with the trades and with the trough in the westerlies of the south Pacific Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 947-954. van Loon, H., and D. J. Shea, 1985: The Southern Oscillation. Part IV: The precursors south of 15°S to the extremes of the oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 2063-2074. Wang, B., 1995: Interdecadal changes in El Niño onset in the last four decades. J. Climate, 8, 267-285. Wang, X. L., and C. F. Ropelewski, 1995: An assessment of ENSO-scale secular variability. J. Climate, 8, 1584-1599. Woodruff, S. D., R. J. Slutz, R. L. Jenne, and P. M. Steurer, 1987: A comprehensive ocean- atmosphere data set., Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 68, 1239-1250. Woodruff, S. D., S. J. Lubker, K. Wolter, S. J. Worley, and J. D. Elms, 1993: Comprehensive Ocean- Atmosphere Data Set (COADS) Release 1a: 1980-92. Earth Sys. Monitor, 4, 6 pp. Wright, P. B., J. M. Wallace, T. P. Mitchell, and C. Deser, 1988: Correlation structure of the El Niño / Southern Oscillation phenomenon. J. Climate, 1, 609-625. Wyrtki, K., 1975: El Niño the dynamic response of the equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric forcing. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 572-584. Yulaeva, E., and J. M. Wallace, 1994: The signature of ENSO in global temperature and precipitation fields derived from the Microwave Sounding Unit. J. Climate, 7, 1719-1736. Allan, R. J., and R. D. D¹Arrigo, 1999: ³Persistent² ENSO sequences: How unusual was the 1990-1995 El Niño? The Holocene, 9, 101-118. Allan, R. J., J. Lindesay, and D. Parker, 1996: El Niño Southern Oscillation and Climatic Variability. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), 405 pp. Angell, J. K., 1981: Comparison of variations in atmospheric quantities with sea surface temperature variations in the equatorial eastern Pacific. Mon. Wea. Rev., 109, 230-243. Barnett, T. P., 1977: The principal time and space scales of the Pacific trade wind fields. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 221-236. Barnett, T. P., 1984: Long-term trends in surface temperature over the oceans. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 303-312. Basnett, T. A., and D. E. Parker, 1997: Development of the global mean sea level pressure data set GMSLP2. Tech. Rep. CRTN 79, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, 51 pp. [Available from Meteorological Office, London Road, Bracknell, Berkshire RG12 2SY, United Kingdom.] Berlage, H. P., 1966: The Southern Oscillation and world weather. K. Ned. Meteor. Inst. Meded. Verh., 88, 153 pp. Dai, A., I. Y. Fung, and A. Del Genio, 1997: Surface observed global land precipitation variations during 1900-88. J. Climate, 10, 2943-2962. Fedorov, A. V., and S. G. H. Philander, 2000: Is El Niño changing? Science, 288, 1997- 2002. Folland, C. K., and D. E. Parker, 1995: Correction of instrumental biases in historical sea surface temperature data. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 121, 319-367. Graham, N. E., 1994: Decadal-scale climate variability in the 1970s and 1980s: Observations and model results. Climate Dyn., 10, 135-162. Halpert, M. S., and C. F. Ropelewski, 1992: Surface temperature patterns associated with the Southern Oscillation. J. Climate, 5, 577-593. Harrison, D. E., and N. K. Larkin, 1997: Darwin sea level pressure, 1876-1996: Evidence for climate change? Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1779-1782. Jones, P. D., T. J. Osborn, K. R. Briffa, C. K. Folland, E. B. Horton, L. V. Alexander, D. E. Parker, and N. A. Rayner, 2001: Adjusting for sampling density in grid box land and ocean surface temperature time series. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 3371-3380. Kaplan, A., Y. Kushnir, M. A. Cane, and M. B. Blumenthal, 1997: Reduced space optimal analysis for historical data sets: 136 years of Atlantic sea surface temperatures. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 27835-27860. Kaplan, A., M. A. Cane, Y. Kushnir, A. C. Clement, M. B. Blumenthal, and B. Rajagopalan, 1998: Analyses of global sea surface temperature 1856-1991. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 18567- 18589. Kaplan, A., Y. Kushnir, and M. A. Cane, 2000: Reduced space optimal interpolation of historical marine sea level pressure: 1854-1992. J. Climate, 13, 2987-3002. Kiladis, G. N., and H. F. Diaz, 1989: Global climatic anomalies associated with extremes in the Southern Oscillation. J. Climate, 2, 1069-1090. Kistler, R., E. Kalnay, W. Collins, S. Saha, G. White, J. Woollen, M. Chelliah, W. Ebisuzaki, M. Kanamitsu, V. Kousky, H. van den Dool, R. Jenne, and M. Fiorino, 2001: The NCEP- NCAR 50-year reanalysis: Monthly means CD-ROM and documentation. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 247-268. Können, G. P., P. D. Jones, M. H. Kaltofen, and R. J. Allan, 1998: Pre-1866 extensions of the Southern Oscillation Index using early Indonesian and Tahitian meteorological readings. J. Climate, 11, 2325-2339. Mantua, N. J., S. R. Hare, Y. Zhang, J. M. Wallace, and R. C. Francis, 1997: A Pacific interdecadal climate oscillation with impacts on salmon production. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 1069-1079. Meisner, B. N., 1976: A study of Hawaii and Line Island rainfall. Rep. UHMET-74-04, Dept. Meteor., Univ. Hawaii, 83 pp. Minobe, S., 1997: A 50-70 year climatic oscillation over the north Pacific and North America. Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 683-686. Minobe, S., 1999: Resonance in bidecadal and pentadecadal climate oscillations over the north Pacific: Role in climatic regime shifts. Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 855-858. Mitchell, T. P., and J. M. Wallace, 1996: ENSO seasonality: 1950-78 versus 1979-92. J. Climate, 9, 3149-3161. Nitta, T., and S. Yamada, 1989: Recent warming of tropical sea surface temperature and its relationship to the Northern Hemisphere circulation. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 67, 375-383. New, M., M. Hulme, and P. Jones, 2000: Representing twentieth-century space-time climate variability. Part II: Development of 1901-96 monthly grids of terrestrial surface climate. J. Climate, 13, 2217-2238. Rajagopalan, B., U. Lall, and M. A. Cane, 1997: Anomalous ENSO occurrences: An alternative view. J. Climate, 10, 2351-2357. Rajagopalan, B., U. Lall, and M. A. Cane, 1999: Comment on "Reply to the comments of Trenberth and Hurrell." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2724-2726. Rasmusson, E. M., and T. H. Carpenter, 1982: Variations in tropical sea surface temperature and surface wind fields associated with the Southern Oscillation / El Niño. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 354-384. Reiter, E. R., 1978: Long-term wind variability in the tropical Pacific, its possible causes and effects. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 324-330. Ropelewski, C. F., and M. S. Halpert, 1986: North American precipitation and temperature patterns associated with the El Niño / Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 2352-2362. Ropelewski, C. F., and M. S. Halpert, 1987: Global and regional scale precipitation patterns associated with the El Niño / Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 16061626. Ropelewski, C. F., and M. S. Halpert, 1989: Precipitation patterns associated with the high index phase of the Southern Oscillation. J. Climate, 2, 268-284. Smith, T. M., R. W. Reynolds, R. E. Livezey, and D. C. Stokes, 1996: Reconstruction of historical sea surface temperatures using empirical orthogonal functions. J. Climate, 9, 1403- 1420. Stahle, D. W., R. D. D¹Arrigo, P. J. Krusic, M. K. Cleaveland, E. R. Cook, R. J. Allan, J. E. Cole, R. B. Dunbar, M. D. Therrell, D. A. Gay, M. D. Moore, M. A. Stokes, B. T. Burns, J.Villanueva- Diaz, and L. G. Thompson, 1998: Experimental dendroclimatic reconstruction of the Southern Oscillation. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 10, 2137-2152. Torrence, C., and P. J. Webster, 1998: The annual cycle of persistence in the El Niño / Southern Oscillation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 1985-2004. Trenberth, K. E., 1990: Recent observed interdecadal climate changes in the Northern Hemisphere. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 71, 988-993. Trenberth, K. E., and D. Shea, 1987: On the evolution of the Southern Oscillation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 3078-3096. Trenberth, K. E., and T. J. Hoar, 1996: The 1990-1995 El Niño - Southern Oscillation event: Longest on record. Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 57-60. Trenberth. K.E. and J.W. Hurrell, 1994: Decadal Atmosphere-Ocean Variations in the Pacifc. Climate Dyn., 9, 303-319. Trenberth, K. E., and J. W. Hurrell, 1999a: Comments on "The interpretation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2721-2722. Trenberth, K. E., and J. W. Hurrell, 1999b: Reply to Rajagopalan, Lall, and Cane's comment about "The interpretation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2726-2728. Trenberth, K. E., and D. P. Stepaniak, 2001: Indices of El Niño evolution. J. Climate, 14, 1697-1701. Troup, A. J., 1965: The Southern Oscillation. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 91, 490-506. Urban, F. E., J. E. Cole, and J. T. Overpeck, 2000: Influence of mean climate change on climate variability from a 155-year tropical Pacific coral record. Nature, 407, 989-993. Walker, G., T., and E. W. Bliss, 1932: World weather V. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 4, No. 36, 53-84. Walker, G., T., and E. W. Bliss, 1937: World weather VI. Mem. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 4, No. 39, 119-139. Wallace, J. M., and Q. Jiang, 1988: On the observed structure of the interannual variability of the atmosphere / ocean climate system. Atmospheric and Oceanic Variability, H. Cattle, Ed., Roy. Meteor. Soc., 17-43. Webster, P. J., and S. Yang, 1992: Monsoon and ENSO: Selectively interactive systems. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 118, 877-926. Woodruff, S. D., 2001a: COADS updates including newly digitized data and the blend with the United Kingdom Meteorological Office Marine Data Bank. Workshop on Prep., Process., and Use of Hist. Marine Meteor. Data. Tokyo, Japan Meteor. Agency and Ship and Ocean Found., 9-13. [http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/coads/jma00_a.html] Woodruff, S. D., 2001b: Quality control in recent COADS updates. Workshop on Prep., Process., and Use of Hist. Marine Meteor. Data. Tokyo, Japan Meteor. Agency and Ship and Ocean Found., 49-53. [http://www.cdc.noaa.gov/coads/jma00_b.html] Wright, P. B., 1977: The Southern Oscillation patterns and mechanisms of the teleconnections and the persistence. Rep. HIG-77-13, Hawaii Inst. Geophys., University of Hawaii, Honolulu HI, 107 pp. Wright, P. B., 1979: Persistence of rainfall anomalies in the central Pacific. Nature, 277, 371-374. Wright, P. B., 1985: The Southern Oscillation: An ocean-atmosphere feedback system? Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 66, 398-412. Wright, P. B., J. M. Wallace, T. P. Mitchell, and C. Deser, 1988: Correlation structure of the El Niño / Southern Oscillation phenomenon. J. Climate, 1, 609-625. Wunsch, C., 1999a: The interpretation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 245-256. Wunsch, C., 1999b: Reply to comments on "The interpretation of short climate records with comments on the North Atlantic and Southern Oscillations." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 80, 2723. Wyrtki, K., 1975: El Niño the dynamic response of the equatorial Pacific Ocean to atmospheric forcing. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 5, 572-584. Zhang, Y., J. M. Wallace, and D. S. Battisti, 1997: ENSO-like interdecadal variability: 1900-93. J. Climate, 10, 1004-1020.